Evidence center · 2026
Sources behind every
number on this site.
The peer-reviewed papers, regulatory approvals and registry data underpinning our claims about Chinese hospitals, treatments and costs. NHC, NMPA, JCI, WHO, NICE, Cochrane, Clarivate, ChiCTR and major medical journals.
Sections
Six categories, 25 primary sources.
Class A & JCI
Hospital quality & accreditation
3 sources
MSC, CAR-T, NMPA approvals
Stem cell & regenerative medicine
5 sources
WHO, NICE, Cochrane
Acupuncture clinical evidence
5 sources
Volume, outcomes, integrative
Oncology & cancer care
4 sources
VBP, MTA, PBB
Cost & medical tourism
4 sources
ICD-11, NMPA, mechanism
TCM regulation & evidence
4 sources
Class A & JCI
Hospital quality & accreditation.
- NHC Annual Statistical Report 2023China National Health Commission (国家卫生健康委员会) · 2024
- China's healthcare institutions delivered ~9.55 billion outpatient visits and ~302 million hospital discharges in 2023. 1,795 hospitals scored ≥900/1000 in NHC tri-annual quality audits, qualifying as Class A tertiary (三级甲等).
- China Hospital Performance BenchmarkFudan University Hospital Management Institute · 2024
- Top 100 Chinese hospitals performed 7.89 million surgeries in 2021. Ranking methodology covers patient safety, clinical quality, scientific output, and management performance — recognised by NHC.
- JCI Accredited Organizations DirectoryJoint Commission International · 2024
- Over 1,200 JCI-accredited healthcare organizations across 70+ countries. Re-accreditation every 3 years. Accreditation requires demonstrated compliance with 1,200+ measurable patient safety and quality standards.
MSC, CAR-T, NMPA approvals
Stem cell & regenerative medicine.
- NMPA approval of Ruibosheng (amimestrocel injection) for steroid-refractory acute GVHDNational Medical Products Administration (NMPA) · January 2025
- China's first NMPA-approved mesenchymal stem cell drug. Indicated for steroid-refractory acute graft-versus-host disease following allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplant.
- China Clinical Trial Registry — stem cell therapy registrationsChiCTR · 2024
- 2,794 active stem cell trials in China, more than any country except the US. 42% year-on-year growth in registrations 2024.
- Bone Marrow MSC for Knee Osteoarthritis: A Randomized Controlled TrialWang et al., Stem Cells Translational Medicine · 2023
- Autologous bone-marrow MSC intra-articular injection significantly reduced WOMAC pain and function scores vs hyaluronic acid at 12 months in grade II–III knee OA.
- Tu Youyou: 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for artemisininNobel Foundation · 2015
- Tu Youyou awarded for the discovery of artemisinin, derived from Artemisia annua (青蒿) — TCM's most prominent contribution to global medicine. Now WHO's first-line antimalarial.
- China NMPA-Approved CAR-T Products RegistryNMPA · 2024
- Four NMPA-approved CAR-T products: Yikaida (axicabtagene ciloleucel), Carteyva (relmacabtagene autoleucel), Fukerui (equecabtagene autoleucel), Yuanruida (zevorcabtagene autoleucel). Indicated for B-cell lymphoma, ALL, multiple myeloma.
WHO, NICE, Cochrane
Acupuncture clinical evidence.
- Acupuncture for Chronic Pain: Update of an Individual Patient Data Meta-AnalysisVickers AJ et al., The Journal of Pain · 2018
- Individual patient data meta-analysis (n=20,827, 39 trials) confirmed acupuncture's effect over sham for chronic low back pain, neck pain, knee osteoarthritis, and chronic headache. Effect sizes durable beyond 12 months.
- Acupuncture for prevention of episodic and chronic migraine — Cochrane ReviewsLinde K et al., Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · 2016
- Acupuncture reduces migraine frequency comparably to prophylactic drugs, with fewer side effects. NICE recommends acupuncture for chronic tension headache and migraine prophylaxis.
- WHO Acupuncture ReviewWorld Health Organization · 2003 (updated)
- WHO recognises 64 conditions with evidence supporting acupuncture. Strongest categories: musculoskeletal pain, headache, post-operative and chemotherapy-induced nausea, allergic rhinitis, post-stroke rehabilitation.
- Witt CM et al. — Safety of acupuncture: prospective study of 229,230 patientsForschende Komplementärmedizin · 2009
- Largest prospective study of acupuncture safety. Serious adverse events at 1.3 per 10,000 treatments. Common minor effects (bruising, brief soreness, tiredness) in <10% of sessions.
- Mao JJ, Hershman DL et al. — Acupuncture for aromatase-inhibitor-related joint pain in breast cancer survivorsJAMA · 2018
- Randomised controlled trial. Acupuncture significantly reduced AI-related arthralgia compared with sham acupuncture in breast cancer survivors — now standard adjunct in integrative oncology.
Volume, outcomes, integrative
Oncology & cancer care.
- China National Cancer Center Annual Report 2022Zhao et al., National Cancer Center · 2024
- 4.82 million new cancer cases diagnosed in China in 2022. 2.57 million cancer deaths. Top sites: lung, colorectal, thyroid, liver, gastric.
- Shanghai Proton & Heavy Ion Center: 10-year clinical outcomesFudan University Cancer Hospital · 2024
- Over 10,000 patients treated since opening in 2015. Outcomes published in International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics. Strong outcomes for paediatric, prostate, head & neck, and chordoma.
- Real-world outcomes of axicabtagene ciloleucel (Yikaida) in Chinese patients with R/R DLBCLMulticenter Chinese real-world evidence study · 2023
- Chinese RWE data closely match US registration trial (ZUMA-1) — ~80% overall response rate, ~50% complete response, with toxicity profiles consistent across populations.
- SIO-ASCO Integrative Medicine Guideline for Symptom Management in CancerSociety for Integrative Oncology / ASCO · 2022
- Joint clinical guideline endorsing specific complementary therapies for cancer-related symptoms. Strongest evidence: acupuncture for CINV and AI-related joint pain; mindfulness for anxiety; yoga and qi gong for fatigue.
VBP, MTA, PBB
Cost & medical tourism.
- Patients Beyond Borders 2024 Cost Comparison IndexPatients Beyond Borders · 2024
- Global medical tourism market $80–90 billion. 14–16 million annual cross-border patients. Typical savings of 40–80% versus US list prices for procedures at JCI-accredited hospitals.
- China VBP (Volume-Based Procurement) outcomes — joint prosthesis and coronary stent roundsNHC China · 2023
- Coronary stent prices fell from ~¥13,000 to ~¥700 after first VBP round (~95% reduction). Joint prosthesis prices dropped ~80% in the orthopedic VBP round. Drives 50–70% all-in cost savings vs US for international patients.
- ASCO Economic Analysis: Cost of Cancer CareAmerican Society of Clinical Oncology · 2024
- US cancer care total cost $200B+ annually. CAR-T list prices $373,000 (Yescarta) to $475,000 (Kymriah) — plus ~$100,000 hospitalisation. China CAR-T at $60,000–$140,000 represents ~⅓ pricing.
- Mayo Executive Health Pricing 2024Mayo Clinic · 2024
- Mayo Executive Health 2-day comprehensive: $5,000–$10,000. Cleveland Clinic Executive Health 1-day: $4,000–$7,000. China premium executive physical at PUMC International or Ruijin VIP: $1,200–$2,500 — same labs, comparable imaging suite.
ICD-11, NMPA, mechanism
TCM regulation & evidence.
- WHO ICD-11 Chapter 26: Traditional Medicine Module 1World Health Organization · 2019 (in force 2022)
- WHO formally added TCM diagnostic terms to ICD-11. First inclusion of a non-Western medical tradition in the global disease classification — major recognition milestone.
- Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China — 2020 EditionChinese Pharmacopoeia Commission / NMPA · 2020
- Lists 616 commonly used herbs and 1,607 standardised TCM formulations with NMPA quality and safety standards.
- Brinkhaus B et al. — Acupuncture for Allergic Rhinitis: A Randomized Controlled TrialAnnals of Internal Medicine · 2013
- Multi-centre RCT (n=422) showed acupuncture significantly reduced symptom scores and rescue medication use in seasonal allergic rhinitis vs sham acupuncture.
- Goldman N et al. — Adenosine A1 receptors mediate local anti-nociceptive effects of acupunctureNature Neuroscience · 2010
- Identified one of the documented physiological mechanisms of acupuncture: local mast-cell activation and adenosine A1 receptor signalling at needling sites mediates anti-nociceptive effects.
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